By Njodzeka, E; Bulowah, BY; Ngwoh, PZ (2024). Greener Journal of Social Sciences, 14(1): 92-103.
Return to Issue
Full text – PDF
Full text – HTM
Full text – EPUB
Table of Contents
Vol. 14(1), pp. 92-103, 2024
ISSN: 2276-7800
Copyright ©2024, Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International.
https://gjournals.org/GJSC
Department of History and African Civilizations, University of Buea, Cameroon.
Article No.: 042324052
Type: Research
Full Text: PDF, PHP, HTML, EPUB. MP3
The aim of all medicines is to treat illnesses using diverse methods base on the cultural and beliefs systems of a people. Nso Fondom is blessed with two solid systems of therapy that is indigenous and conventional medicines. Prior to the introduction of biomedicine in Africa in general and Nso Fondom in particular in the 19th century, indigenous medicine was the only system of therapy. Conventional medicine was introduced in Nso by missionary bodies which constituted the Baptist, Catholics, the Basil missionaries and the Colonialists. Biomedicine was received in Nso with mixed feelings given that the Missionaries wanted to discard Indigenous Medicine in favor of Biomedicine. The missionaries wage a war of words against indigenous medicines wherein they described it as witchcraft, superstition, dirty and its practitioners as witch doctors. This paper argues that collaboration between Indigenous and Biomedicine is pivotal for the treatment of illnesses and improvement of the health of the masses. This is because there were illnesses that were better handled by indigenous medicines and some by conventional medicine and this called for collaboration. For the realization of this paper, both primary and secondary sources were consulted. Oral interviews were conducted and the target population was indigenous healers, nurses, medical doctors and the users of these systems of health. Archival materials were also consulted. For secondary sources, books, articles and magazines were consulted. The findings revealed that collaboration between IM and CM will improved the health of the population, prevent the outbreak of illnesses, facilitate the treatment of some illnesses and finally, collaboration will facilitate the exchanged of skills and knowledge.
Published: 29/04/2024
Njodzeka, Elvis
E-mail: elvisnjodzeka@ gmail.com
Keywords: Indigenous Medicine, Biomedicine, Nso, Cameroon.
Prior to the introduction of biomedicine in Cameroon in general and Nso in particular, Indigenous medicine was the only source of health care therapy available to the people. It was used for prevention, treatment of physical and spiritual illnesses and also to meat broken relationship between the dead and the living. IM was practiced in conformity with the culture and belief systems of the people which made it part and parcel of the people. They were borne into it, grow in it and continue to use it in times of health crisis. Conventional medicine was introduced in Africa in general and Cameroon in particular in the 18th and 19th centuries (Fanso, 2010). The introduction of CM in Nso was a mixed blessings and was welcomed with mixed feelings because the European wanted to discard IM to ease the introduction of CM (Bong, 2016). It should be noted that the first consignment of medicine brought by the Europeans to Africa was not meant for the treatment of Africans, but for the colonial administrators and missionaries. West Africa was referred to as the Whiteman’s grave because they were killed in their numbers by malaria. They described IM as dirty, witchcraft and superstition since they perceived it from a Eurocentric perspective using the bible as a measuring rode. Missionaries used health as a tool for evangelization and that explains why they established health centers and hospitals in places like Shisong (Saint Elizabeth Catholic Hospital), Nkavikeng (Banso Baptist Hospital), Kishong and Tatum.(Sunjo, 2016)
This paper seeks to establish the benefits of collaboration between IM and BM. It should be noted that the introduction of BM eradicated some illnesses like sleeping sickness and reduced the spread of epilepsy. BM has also helped in the prevention of illnesses through vaccination. Some traditional healers like Shamase Emmanuel sent patients to the hospital to carry out laboratory test before and after treatment to ensure the illness was well treated (Shamase, 2021). Some people in Nso utilized the two systems simultaneously to treat illnesses. Some medical doctors threatened not to treat patients when they realized that they started using IM before visiting the hospital. Some patients sneak into the hospital with IM to administer simultaneously with BM (Banfogha, 2011). The colonialists and the missionaries on their part hated the practice of traditional medicine and urged their followers to shun the practice and the use of indigenous medicine (Lantum, 1986) which led to tension between IM and BM. In spite of the tension, the two systems of therapy have some similarities and differences. In 1979 the World Health Organization, (W.H.O) recognized indigenous medicine at the Alma/Alta International Conference in Russia (Sarkey, 2010). That was when Indigenous medicine received a green light to freely be practice which reduced tension between the two systems of health to a certain extend.
Nso is one of the largest Fondoms in the Bamenda Grassfields of Cameroon (Chilver, 1976). It covers 85 percent of the land surface of Bui Division and a surface area of approximately 2300 square kilometers (Banfogha, 2011). Nso lies between Latitude 5°, 60° and 6°, 25° North of the Equator and Longitudes 10°, 20° and 11°, 5° East of the Greenwich Meridians. Nso Fondom practice a centralize system of government with the fon at the helm of the administration. He is assisted by the Vibaais, Faays and the Yaahs. Other arms of traditional administration include Nfu, the military wind of the administration and Nwerong which acts as the judiciary. Nso Fondom shares boundary with Mbum land to the North, Bum in the North West, Kom fondom in the West and to the South West with the Ndop plain(Banfogha, 2011). Nso has an Equatorial climate with two seasons that is the rainy and dry seasons. Annual rainfall stands at 1873 millimeters and annual temperature range from 18.3 degree Celsius and 19.6 degree Celsius with an annual temperature of 19 degree Celsius (Njodzeka, 2018). Nso is 109 kilometers from Bamenda, the Regional head quarter of the North West Region of Cameroon (Chilver,1976).
The study adopted a qualitative research method where primary and secondary sources were consulted. Under primary sources, oral interviews were conducted one on one and in groups of at most four traditional healers and biomedical doctors. The targeted population was traditional healers, medical doctors and elites of Nso who used the two systems of therapy. Secondary sources were also consulted and included books and articles, newspapers and magazines. The data was analyzed qualitatively and chronologically.
Scholars within and out of Africa have provided different meanings to their understanding of indigenous medicine. Patrick A Twumasi posits that IM was the service performed through the utilization of magico-religious acts and concepts with healers having notions of physical cure and treatment. According to him, one cannot talk about IM without reference to magico-religious therapy. African traditional medicine is based both on physical and metaphysical forces of the universe (Twumasi, 1975). These forces are responsible for causing most illnesses if not all. For proper treatment of these illnesses both physical and metaphysical means are employed
According to the World Health Organization, indigenous medicine is the sum total of all knowledge, skills and practices based on the theories, believes and experiences of indigenous people to different cultures, whether explicable or not used in the maintenance of health as well as in the prevention, diagnosis, improvement or treatment of physical and mental illnesses (Lusamba, 2010). This view encompasses every aspect of IM and emphasizes it holistic nature. It also indicates the fact that traditional medicine is culture bound, that is practice within the ambit of the culture of a people within a geographically define area.
Daniel Lantum, on his part opines that IM is a system of therapy that fight for the survival of man, his long life, perpetuity, prosperity and happiness, by preventing premature dead through the treatment of disease and by prolonging life through healing. Also, by bestowing the health and power to man so that he can fight better for his prosperity, by relieving misery and long suffering through the healing process and by promoting the fertility of man so that he can continue the procreation of human species (Lantum, 1985). Aderajew perceived traditional medicine as a set of knowledge and practice which is used in diagnosis, prevention and elimination of physical, mental and spiritual illnesses (Aderajew, 2016).
Lantum painted a vivid picture of traditional medicine as his concept of traditional medicine encircle everything about man and his wellbeing, long life, prosperity and procreation. Man’s activities rely exclusively on his health condition, no wonder the adage that “health is wealth”. It can also be added that seek ye first good health and many other things shall be added on to you, for a healthy man can do anything. Traditional medicine is a system of healing where plants, animals and other mineral resources are used to prognoses, diagnose, treat and predict illnesses within a cultural sphere with common belief systems. It can also be seen as man’s interaction with his environment for a quality life and healthy living void of emotional or psychosocial imbalance (Lusamba, 2010).
The word medicine was loosely used to cover a wide range of substances combined with operative acts and binding words, often extended to anything associated with them.(National Archives Buea, 1993) Natural substances, plants in particular, were placed on earth which can be combined with others and activated by men without any other interposition. Medicine can be static or mobile with different strengths in their effects and all should be used for justifiable purposes against malefactors, trespasses, hostile sorcerers, and witches (National Archives Buea, 1990). Since medicine possesses a true quality and a tendency to bounce back against ill-intentioned or witch possess sender, traditional healers avoided such ill intentions to be freed from the consequences.(Ibid)
This practice is referred to as indigenous because it was based on knowledge, practical experience and observation handed down from generation to generation, either verbally or in written form from African forefathers (Onah, 2018). Traditional medicine is an aspect of African Religion and covers both natural healing agencies such as leaves, herbs, roots, animal parts and invocation of rituals or spiritual influence.(Ibid) From the above concepts of IM, the researcher perceived IM as a medium of treatment wherein people are treated from physical and spiritual illnesses within a geographical confine with the use of natural substances like herbs, animals, water, soil, incantation and other mineral resources.
The second concept is biomedicine. The origin of the term biomedicine can be traced back to the 1920s and it was first used by America and British authors (Strasser, 2014). Biomedicine as define by the American medical dictionary is clinical medicines based on the principles of physiology and biochemistry, rather than on the art of healing or the expertise physicians gained through the practice.(Ibid) Biomedicine and biomedical research were understood as a kind of medicine that was closely associated with experimentation and laboratory rather than doctor’s knowledge and clinic.(Ibid) Socially, biomedicine is considered orthodox or scientific medicine and or alternative medicine. In Nso it is referred to as “Shiv se barah” by the indigenous people.
Biomedicine was introduced in Nso land in the 19th century by the European Missionaries and colonialists (Latum, 1986). Before 1916, the presence of biomedicine in Cameroon in general and Nso in particular was not well known (Funteh, 2018). By this time, biomedicine existed only along the coast of Cameroon and was meant for the colonial administrators, missionaries and not for Cameroonians.(Ibid) During the German era in the Bamenda Grassfields, biomedicine was scarce but as from 1916 when the British took over the territory biomedicine was introduced in Nso and other interiors of Bamenda Grassfields. In 1925, the British created a hospital in Bamenda and another one in Kumbo (Nso) (Kent, 2002). The funds for the creation of these hospitals were provided by the Native authority and the British government. The project was under the auspices of E.G Hawkesworth, the District Officer for Bamenda (Funteh, 2018). This building consisted of a ward, a central block, dispensaries, consultation rooms and an office.
The first Christian organization to arrive and settle in Nso was the Catholics. This was the German Sacred Fathers who arrived Nso in 1912. They started their mission work in Shisong and did not only target the spiritual needs of the people but also the health care needs (Banfogha, 2011). In 1935, the Tertiary Sisters of Saint Francis from Brittan, South Tyrol, Italy arrived Cameroon on the 12th of October 1935 (Tssfcameroonhealth, 2023). These sisters were Martina Albenberger, Dorothea Wild, Odilia Hillebrand, Camilla Geier and Cleopha Jocher (Banfogha, 2011). They started a clinic which was recognized as a hospital in 1952 with registration number 224 and confirmed in 1974 with registration number 96/A/MSAP/DSP/SDFS/BESP. (Ibid) The first Cameroonian doctor to be appointed as chief medical officer was Doctor Sunjo Leonard in 1972, a native of Nso.(Ibid).
The Baptist missionaries arrived Nso in 1930 headed by Doctor Gebauer and established their base in Mbem, in Donga Mantung of the North West Province (Region) (Funteh, 2018). At Nkavikeng in Nso, they established a hospital unit under the leadership of Doctor Chaffee. In 1948, the Baptist mission bought the hospital from the colonial government that was established in 1925 and named it Banso Baptist Hospital (BBH). (Ibid) Since then the hospital has stood the test of time as one of the best hospitals in the North West Region and Cameroon as a whole. In addition to their evangelization work, they also owned mobile clinics where they moved from one household to the other to treat patients (Konghadzem, 2016). The picture below shows a structure hosting the Banso Baptist Hospital.
Plate 1: Banso Baptist Hospital (BBH)
Source: Joseph Tsana Enama (2000), Discover Bui Division, it History, Culture and Beautiful Touristic site, n.p
Another missionary body in Nso was the Basel Mission which came to Nso in 1929 and their First evangelist John Mosi was posted in 1930 (Shuka, 2000). The headquarters of the Basel Mission in Nso was at Kishong. Just like the other missionary bodies, the Basel Mission was not left out as far as the health of their followers was concern since health service was a tool for evangelization. They created a First Aid station at Kishong, where the people were treated from various illnesses like scabies, ringworm, and leprosy (Wirsiy, 2016). Due to limited accommodation at this station, some patients were treated at the comfort of their homes but major cases were ferried to the First Aid station for proper treatment (Ibid). They used vaccination to prevent some of these illnesses like tetanus, and tuberculosis.
The introduction of biomedicine encountered limited resistance from the indigenes. The initially consignment of medicine was not meant for the Africans in general and Nso in particular but for the colonial administration and missionaries. The majority of Nso indigenes received biomedicine with euphoria until when the missionaries wanted to annihilate IM. (Banfoha, 2011) Missionaries used CM to foster their evangelization work in Cameroon in general and Nso in particular. Initially, it was administered free of charge to the people especially plantation workers. (Kent, 2002 ) Hospital fees was introduced in the early 1940s and the introduction of this fees further scare the masses from BM. It should be noted here that IM was free of charge and patients offered only elements for sacrifices. It was not only cheap; it was also available at every given moment (Kesiki, 2016).
Initially, many people were against routine vaccination because of the pains that accompanied it. For example, in Nkar in the 1930s, many people fled away from routine vaccination which was carried out on market days.(Banfogha 2011)in recent times, a lot of controversies have surrounded vaccination where in individual with bad faith claimed that vaccines were meant to reduce the population. Also some churches also preach against blood transfusion to her members.
Some patients decided to use the indigenous as well as biomedicine in times of health challenges. Biomedicine was introduced in Nso at the time when endemic diseases like yaws, syphilis, leprosy, typhoid, malaria and small pox were rampant in Nso.(Ibid) Vaccination aided to eradicate and reduced some of these illnesses to the admiration of the people of Nso.(Wiraka, 2016) By so doing, biomedicine gained grounds and the population had no choice than to welcome it. Some of the first medicines introduced in Africa in general and Nso in particular were quinine and aspirin, used to combat malaria.(Fanso,2010) This motivated the people to welcome biomedicine but it should be noted that they did not abandon their traditional healing methods. This buttress the relevance of collaboration between the indigenous and convention systems of health care
The colonialists/missionaries upon their arrival condemned the practice of traditional medicine. As opine by Fanso, they referred to it as witchcraft, superstition, occult medicine, and dirty.(Fanso, 2010) Traditional healers were called witch doctors which demoralized some who decided to practice in hiding. It should be noted that the Europeans came to Africa with a mindset that Africa was a dark continent and have nothing to offer to humanity. Their efforts to discard traditional medicine were futile because biomedicine was scarce, expensive and the fact that they could not treat spiritual illnesses unlike indigenous medicine.
Mission hospitals and some medical doctors went threatened not to treat patients when they realized that the patient visited a traditional healer before coming to the hospital. These doctors believe that the patient could not be treated with indigenous medicine and that explain why they decided to visit the hospital. The Catholic churches in Nso threatened to expel church members who practice and utilize indigenous medicine for treatment from the church. (Yarayen, 2016) In some areas like among the Bamilke of Cameroon and the settler colony of South Africa, indigenous medicine was out rightly banned and traditional healers practice in hiding. Traditional healers were also arrested especially in situations where patients died during treatment.(Fanso, 2010). Notwithstanding, the hatred portrayed by the Europeans on indigenous medicines is strived as the demand for IM has been on a steady increase since it is effective, affordable, and available unlike biomedicine which was scarce and expensive. For example, in 1927, there were only two hospitals in the entire Bamenda Grassfields, one in Bamenda and the other in kumbo.(Kent, 2002). Patients trekked for kilometers to access medications and for this reason, the masses decided to use what was indigenous to them.
As postulated by Daniel N Latum, a researcher and traditional healer, all medicines are aimed at prolonging life.(Cameroon Tribune, 2002) Traditional and modern medicines are meant to treat and restore the lives of the people of their communities and also to reestablished broken relationship between the living and the dead. Though the methodologies of treatment and belief systems differ, they had a common goal to treat spiritual and physical illnesses.
The origin of traditional and modern medicines is traced from herbs. Hippocrates known as the father of biomedicine got inspiration from Ancient Egypt that practice indigenous medicine.(Stuart, 1979) All societies in the world have used indigenous medicines be it developed or developing. With the advent of Industrial Revolution, some of these herbs were transformed into tablets. Dioscorides, a Greek physician mentioned many plants with medicinal properties and most of these plants like pepper, ginger and aniseed are still in used in contemporary pharmacopeia for the production of biomedicines.(Ibid) According to the World Health Organization, more than 30 percent of modern medicines were derived directly or indirectly from plants. Examples included analgesics (aspirin, bellaonna), anticancer medicines (vincristine and vinblastine), antihypertensive agents (reserpine) and anti-malaria (quinine, artemisinin) (Kasilo, 2010) indigenous and conventional medicines have the same source of raw material.
The transformation of medicinal properties in plants to biomedicine started in the 18th and 19th centuries and since then modern physicians still rely on plant extract for the production of biomedicines.(Ibid) Indigenous medicines on it part also depended highly on plants extract for the processing and production of medicines. Herbs constitute 57 percent, trees 24 percent, shrubs 15 percent and climbers 4 percent of raw materials used for the production of indigenous medicine.(Simbo, 2010) Traditional and biomedical derived their raw material from a common source which was mostly plants and other mineral resources, though the method of processing differs.
The treatment process in IM and CM commence with the establishment of the etiology of the illness. Before medicine was administered to a patient, the physician sought to know the cause. Biomedical doctors used the laboratory to diagnose illnesses through the examination of blood, urine and excrement depending on the type of illness. On the other hand, traditional healers establish the cause of an illness via divination which was done with the used of cowries, kola nuts and kola nuts peelings. Through divination, traditional healers were able to establish the cause of an illness and how it could be treated.
Another similarity was the fact that indigenous and medical doctors belief in the existence of a supreme being (God). Biomedicine was affiliated to Christianity while indigenous medicine was affiliated to African traditional religion. (Mumo, 2012) Biomedical and traditional healers believed that they only treat but healing comes from God. In the course of treatment, traditional healers perform sacrifices to the ancestors who are belief to be the source of their powers to treat. Also, there were some illnesses that effective treatment could only be done through sacrifices to the gods. Mission hospitals on the other hand pray to God and belief God is the mighty healer. There is a slogan used by indigenous and medical doctors that says “we only treats and God heals.”
Indigenous and conventional medicines operate under strict ethical considerations. Prior to becoming a medical doctor, an oath commonly refers to as a hypocritical oath is taken before being granted the license to function as a medical doctor. Indigenous healers on the part also swear an oath before their trainer, other traditional healers and the public before being recognized by the community as a healer. The aim of this oath is to respect human beings in the course of treatment. (Lantum, 1986, Mbuy, 2021) It should be noted that the potency of indigenous medicine is anchored on the respect of these norms. Violation of these norms led to inefficacy of medicine and in some instances, healer were attacked by an illness as a punishment. When medical doctors go contrary to these norms, they are sanctioned.
Just like any human endeavor, indigenous and biomedicines have strengths and weaknesses. While some people criticize indigenous medicines because of poor hygienic conditions and the dosage, biomedicine was also criticized for numerous side effects cause by toxic chemicals found in it. Both sectors need to capitalize on their strength and work on their weaknesses for the betterment of humanity.
The heart of traditional and conventional medicines is research. Traditional and medical doctors embark on research to discover new medicines and to improve on existing knowledge. New illnesses crop up from time to time which gives doctors the task to diagnose, prognose and developed medication for the treatment of such illnesses. For example in 2019, the world witnessed the outbreak of a dreaded illness known as Covid 19. When this illness started, there was no cure for it and it killed in thousands. After intensive research in both traditional and conventional medicine, traditional healers discovered the treatment of Covid 19. Bishop Samuel Kleder of Cameroon and the president of Madagascar, through research discovered a herbal remedy for Covid 19 which was proven to be effective. (The post Newspaper, 2021)
Biomedical doctors on their part discovered some vaccines for the treatment of Covid 19. Also HIV/AIDS that surfaced some years back and had no cure is curable today thanks to research. Many traditional healers have discovered the treatment of HIV/AIDS and have treated some patients suffering from this illness.(Kube, 2002) Although the methods used in carrying out research differs between traditional and biomedicines, they are a common direction which is the discovery of new medicines and the improvement of old ones.
Traditional and conventional medicines complement each other to meets the health care need of the people. In places with inadequacy or absence of conventional medicine, the population relies on indigenous medicine especially in the developing world in general and Cameroon in particular. Patients who have the financial ability decide on which system to use that will treat them within a short period of time. It should be noted that illnesses with spiritual underpinnings are easily treated with indigenous medicines. (Karngong, 2020) Some traditional healers advise their patients to run some laboratory test in the hospital before and after treatment to ensure that the illness was well treated. Some traditional healers encourage referrals. That is, they refer patients to the hospital when they realized that the illness will be easily treated at the level of the hospital. (Shamase, 2021) For example, patients who need to undergo surgery and blood transfusion.
Traditional and biomedical doctors operate under intellectual property right. Traditional healers use customary laws to protect their rights, though not documented. These laws originated from the peoples culture and differs from one community to the other. Individual communities have complex and effective customary system to protect traditional knowledge (Sarkey, 2010). The International Labor Organization Convention of 1989 in it article 169(20) recognized the rights of indigenous people to conserve their institutions through customs and believes.(Ibid) These laws determine the ownership of elements of traditional knowledge and other responsibilities and the right of customary use of knowledge should be permitted.
Conventional doctors on their part have a documented intellectual property right which protects their products. Medical doctors consider traditional healers to be secretive since they don’t expose certain things about their practice to the general public. The intellectual property right that guides traditional medicines was enshrine in community laws and was not strong as compare to conventional medicine. Traditional medicine was codified through language and culture of the respective communities. Just as there were similarities, there are also differences that make each system of health unique.
Indigenous and conventional medicines have a common mission, which is to treat illnesses. Despite this common mission, their methods of operation differs which make each system unique. The first difference that could be advance is the fact that indigenous medicine is culture bound and treats both spiritual and physical illnesses. In most of Africa, it is believed that illnesses were cause by spiritual and natural forces and for proper treatment; the illness was targeted from the physically and spiritually angle. Biomedicines on it part deals with the physical part of the illness and only solicit the services of Christians to target spiritual illnesses through prayers.
Biomedicine is standardized and treats patients across the globe using the same medications. This means that a drug produced in any part of the world for the treatment of malaria could be used to treat malaria in any part of the world. CM is not limited to a cultural or geographical sphere (Sunjo, 2016). Indigenous medicine on the other hand is limited to a geographical area or community with a similar belief system and cultural norms. This is because IM is practice in conformity with the culture of the people. There are herbs that are medicinal in one area but not known in others since some of the medicinal herbs rely on the belief system or culture to activate efficacy. (Ibid) Also, there are herbs that are not transferable from one area to the other because its efficacy will be destroyed in the course of movement.
Another major difference between IM and CM was in the aspect of cost and availability. IM is cheap and available to the population at any given moment. It is medicine of the people by the people and for the people (Mokgobi, 2016). From its inception, traditional medicine was not a commercial commodity as it was meant to “help” treat patients who suffered from diverse illnesses, especially in the developing countries. IM was meant for everyone that is the rich and the poor in the community. Conventional medicine on its part was considered medicine for the rich because it was expensive and scarce. To assess CM demanded a lot of money and in some instances, the medicine was not available especially in the rural area and semi urban areas.
Indigenous medicine is the oldest system of health care therapy (Porter, 1997). It is as old as the existence of mankind for man had always sought ways to meet up health care from within his environment. All societies in the world at a certain moment had used indigenous medicine, whether developed or less developed. Conventional medicine emanated from the knowledge of IM as most pharmaceutical industries relied on herbs for the production of medicines.(Simbo,2010) Modern medicine was a transformation of indigenous healing methods in the western societies especially with the advent of industrial revolution in Europe before it was introduced in Africa in the 19th century during the colonial era.(Iddrisu, 2017)
Indigenous medicine is natural and has limited side effects. Most if not all raw materials used by traditional healers to produce medicines comes from natural environment and local methods are used to process the medicines. Chemical substances are not added to it for whatever reason. Though traditional healers could scientifically determine the side effect of the medicines administer to patients, the side effects is limited since it is natural. Conventional medicines on the contrary have a lot of side effect and the side effects are scientifically established.CM undergoes a lot of processing, coding, preservation agents and all these are toxic to the body. All drugs have side effects and when drugs cure one illness, it damages another gradually especially when the patients live on drugs (Fanso, 2020). Rampant utilization of CM is discouraged as it damages the heart of man and other body parts. One of the reasons why indigenous medicine is gaining grounds in the developed countries is because of its limited side effects. Many patients have resorted to the use of IM to avoid the side effects.
The method used to diagnosed patients before treatments commence also differs. Medical doctors used a scientific laboratory to diagnose and establish the cause of an illness meanwhile traditional healers rely on divination. They tested the vital signs of the patient and examine the blood, excrete urine and spittle. All these are taken to the laboratory for examination and diagnoses. Indigenous healers use divination to establish the cause of an illness and how the illness could be treated. Divination determines whether the cause of an illness is spiritual or physical and also carryout prognosis using the same process.
Documenting the medical history of a patient is of utmost important in CM practice, while traditional healers hardly put into writing the medical history of patients despite its importance. This stem from the fact that most traditional healers were illiterates and documenting medical history was not of any interest to them. The medical history of a patient plays a significant role especially when visiting the hospital for the second time. Medical history also helps in that not only one doctor treats a patient. That is, the next medical doctor to work on the patient just need to go through the medical history of the patient and continue from where the other doctor ended. Traditional healers deal mostly with oral interviews to carry out their treatment (Yusuf, 2015).
It takes a long period of time for medical doctors to be trained and awarded licenses to operate as doctors as compare to traditional healers. The duration to train a medical doctor depends on the specialty and in most cases 7 years and above in recognized schools. (Ibid) Tradi-practitioners on their part takes a shorter period of time to undergo the training. Most tradi-practitioners inherited the skills from their parents and grandparents while others acquired the skills through revelation. For those who were trained to become traditional healers, the duration of training range from about one to three years depending on the trainees ability to gain the skills (Shamase, 2021).
Conventional medicine is highly standardized as compare to traditional medicine. Most activities carryout in pharmaceutical industries are common in most part of the world. Treating an illness with the use of a particular drug also cuts across, that is the same prescription will be done for people of the same age across the board (Yusuf, 2015 ). Traditional medicine on its part is not standardized with differences in the method of treatment based on the culture of a particular ethnic group. For example different methods and equipment are used to carry out divination. Some diviners use kola nut peelings, cowries, water while others use sticks, broken iron and bottles for the same exercise. Also traditional healers used different methods to treat illnesses which are peculiar to them. Even within the same cultural sphere, there is no standardization as each practitioner operates individually.
In terms of dosage and preservation, there is a gap between CM and IM. Medical doctors establish the dosage of every medication based on age, size, weight, height and the duration the illness had been in the patient. All this is possible because of the level of science and technology involved in conventional medicine. Pharmaceutical industries have also developed well preservative methods for the medicines they produced. They established the duration the medicine could last before it expire and are exact with the duration. (Ibid) This has been a major hurdle with indigenous medicine. Preservation of medicine has been a herculean task in the indigenous medicines industry especially medicines produce in liquid form. Because of this, traditional healers produce medicines on command and it is consumed within a very short period of time (Shamase, 2021), this is to avoid fermentation which could instead cause damage to the body. Transportation of indigenous medicine is also challenging especially to long distance places. The medication may get bad before it reaches the consumer or the patients. Modern medicines had overcome these challenges due to its high level of science and technology.
Indigenous and modern medicines have different conception on disease causation and treatment. Medical doctors believe in the physical causes of illnesses and they target the illnesses physically. Since indigenous medicines are in line with the belief systems and culture of the people, they acknowledge two main causes of illnesses which are the physical and spiritual. The treatment process handles the spiritual and physical causes, thus making IM to be holistic. Treatment of illnesses with spiritual underpinnings takes the form of sacrifice to appease the gods or ancestors.
Conventional medicine is highly recognized all over the world but traditional medicine is still striving for recognition. Prior to the introduction of conventional medicines in Africa in general and among the Tikars of the Bamenda Grassfields, indigenous medicine was the only means of therapy and it was recognized by the masses (Kent, 2002). Biomedicine was introduced in Africa by the missionaries and the colonialists and in other to ensure it supremacy in Africa, they castigated traditional medicine and refer to it as witchcraft, dirty and superstition (Fanso, 2010). It was banned in some places like the Republic of South Africa and among the Bamilikes of Cameroon. It was only in 1978 that the W.H.O recognized IM at the Alma-Ata Conference in Russia and urged her member states to recognized and promote this system of health care (Lusamba, 2010). IM is not well regulated by most African governments including Cameroon, meanwhile billions of Francs CFA are injected into biomedicine. Traditional medicines do not have any legal backing in Cameroon though practitioners have licenses issued by the government.
Indigenous and conventional medicines have areas of giftedness. Some illnesses are better handled by indigenous medicine while others are easily prevented and treated with conventional medicine. In the Nso Fondom, it was believed that illnesses like epilepsy, leprosy and madness were easily treated with indigenous medicine. This was because most of these illnesses have spiritual underpinnings. With the introduction of conventional medicine, it facilitated the treatment and eradication of some illnesses like sleeping sickness (Yarayen, 2016).
The degree of safety between indigenous and modern medicine differs. Conventional medicine is based on drug trials with experimentation (Yusuf, 2015). The trial of medicine was at times first on animals before administering it to human after being approved. Traditional medicine do not undergo a rigorous experimentation since there don’t have a laboratory. They relied on knowledge and experience handed down from one generation to the other. The differences between indigenous and modern medicines have led to tension between the health care systems instead of collaborating with each other.
Even though indigenous and biomedicines had a common aspiration to treat patients who suffered from one illness or the other, there have been tension over time between the two systems of health care. This tension originated from the differences that exist between IM and CM and the way the missionaries and colonialists perceived indigenous medicine. They believed upon their arrival in Africa that in anything, Africa was inferior and Europe was superior. They wanted to impose their superiority complex in Africa even in the health care and that explain why they castigated IM in favor of CM.
One of the reasons that accounted for this tension was the fact that missionaries/colonialists upon their arrival castigated indigenous medicine as dirty, witchcraft and superstition. Traditional healers were called witch doctors which made them uncomfortable (Fanso, 2010). The missionaries did not even border to investigate how this system of health care function but went ahead to discouraged their followers or converts to shun the use and practice of Indigenous medicine. In some parts of Africa like South Africa in 1953 and among the Bamileke of Cameroon, it was out rightly banned and criminalize. When a patient died in the course of treatment, the traditional healer was arrested and detained (Ibid). This made most practitioners to practice underground or in hidings. All these led to tension between the two systems of health.
These two systems of health care originated from different areas with different beliefs systems. The introduction of biomedicines and European culture in Africa led to cultural/ideological clash which hitherto created an unequal power relation (Arazeem, 2011). Indigenous medicine and Africans have a peculiar way they perceived health and how it was restored or treated. The West on the other hand also had different ways to perceive an illness and how it could be treated Mumo, 2012) while indigenous medicine was anchored on African traditional religion, modern medicine was anchored on Christianity and other religions. These disparities in belief system led to tension especially when the missileries and colonialists believe that their system was the best and most be imposed on the Africans. That was why upon their arrival, they wanted to totally annihilate IM in favor of CM. Traditional healers and the population resisted because indigenous medicine was not only available, but it was affordable and effective in the treatment of illnesses. Ali Arazee posited that
“A century of colonialism, cultural imperialism and Apartheid in South Africa have held back the development of African traditional health care in general and medicines in particular. During several centuries of conquest and invasion, European system of medicine was introduced by colonizers. Pre-existing African systems were stigmatized and marginalized and indigenous knowledge system were denied the chance to systematize and developed”.(Arazeem, 2011).
Unlike biomedicine that was officially recognized and supported by the government, indigenous medicine was yet to be officially recognized. In 1978, the World Health Organization officially recognized indigenous medicine in the Alma-Ata Conference and persuaded all her member states to officially recognized this system of health care (Lusamba, 2010), this was because of the pivotal role IM played in the lives of many especially in the Developing world. Even though some African countries like Ghana, Nigeria and Senegal have officially recognized indigenous medicine by developing it through various means, Cameroon is yet to recognize and fully engaged in support of this sector. The recognition of one and not the other buttress the superiority complex in the health care industry, thus leading to tension. According to some medical doctors (Djai, 2022), they could not refer a patient to a traditional doctor because they lack legal backings. Some claimed that if they refer a patient to a herbalist and he end up dyeing, they cannot legally back themselves (Sunjo, 2016). Some medical doctors went as far as threatening to stop treating a patient when they realized that the patient visited a traditional healer.
The government invested a lot of money in biomedicine and very little on indigenous medicines despite the fact that about eighty percent of the population relied and make use of this system in times of health challenges. The government is yet to officially recognized and subsidies it in other to boost the sector. Despite the money bumped by the government into biomedicine, it is still expensive to the common man especially in the rural areas when compare to indigenous medicines. The efforts of the government to uplift the statuesque of traditional healers are slow.
Indigenous medicine industry was invaded by many charlatans since the sector was not well regulated. The activities of these charlatans tarnished the image of the sector giving room for a lot of criticisms as some of them who hide as traditional healers lie to patients, to extort money from them. Some even claimed to treat all illnesses and failed to refer patients to expert in a particular domain. Because of this many people who could have been treated if they sought the solution to their problem from the right place ended up dying. All these activities cause pains to biomedical doctors and made them not to have confidence in indigenous system of health care.
Most traditional and biomedical doctors perceived themselves as competitors instead of complementing each other. The fact that they perceived themselves as competitors is a breathing ground for tension between the two systems. They don’t speak well of each other and instead capitalized on the weaknesses of each other rather than their strength. On the National Radio and Television, biomedical doctors chastise indigenous medicine and the activities of traditional healers. Traditional healers who at first did not advertise themselves have invaded local radio/televisions within the communities to advertise their products. They also advertised on inter urban transport buses and along the major streets of towns and cities (Kent, 2002). They used this opportunity to also castigate conventional medicine and exposed their weaknesses. Tension also arose when traditional healers claimed they treated HIV/AIDS. Medical Doctors felt that they were being challenged by traditional healers (Richter, 2003).
Collaboration between indigenous and conventional medicines is of utmost importance to traditional and medical doctors as well as to the patients they treat. First and foremost, they complement each other especially in places where one is inaccessible. The availability and affordability of indigenous medicine is a plus for collaboration (Wirgo, 2016). In places where conventional medicine was not available, the population relied on IM to meet up their health care needs. Conventional medicine was not only scarce in some areas but it was also expensive for some people who could not afford it. It is a known fact that IM is utilized by about eighty percent of the population of Africa (Wamba et al, 2012).
Collaboration is a prerequisite for the exchange of skills and knowledge within the health industry. In 1999, the World Health Organization organized a conference in Beijing and China, where tradi-practitioners and biomedical doctors came together to exchange ideas on collaboration (WHO, 1999). It was important for the two systems to come together and to understand how each other function in order to strengthen each other. Understanding the two systems of health care by practitioners eased and facilitated external referrals, that is traditional healers referring patients to medical doctors and medical doctors doing same (Shamase, 2021). It has been established that there were illnesses that were easily treated with IM while others were easily treated with CM. this will facilitate the healing process.
Collaboration between IM and CM led to a decline in mortality rate especially in countries like Mali where the two systems work together. For example, indigenous and medical doctors targeted the treatment of malaria in Mali and it reduced mortality due malaria from five percent in1997 to two percent in 1998 (Wamba, 2012). Within a period of only one year they succeeded to reduce death rate caused by malaria by three percent. This showed that effective collaboration facilitated the treatment of many illnesses. In 1977 two medical doctors testified about two patients who visited the hospital, but they were unable to treat them. They said:
“They brought a senior chief to the hospital having flaccid quadriplegia with all reflexes lost and we treated him without any result. After some time, they requested me to let them take home their chief to the village. I thought he was leaving to go and die but I found him on his feet quite fit and working again. He lived for many years thereafter and died from alcoholic cirrhosis of the liver.”(Lantum,1975)
The second doctor testified of a man who suffered from mycosis of the foot, typical Madura mycosis with gangrenous fistula and poor general condition which seems to justify amputation of the foot. The patient was discharged from the hospital without being treated on demand by the family. The family realized that the illness had spiritual underpinnings and could not be treated at the level of the hospital. The traditional healer started the treatment process by killing the man who bewitched the chief. After six months, the chief return to the hospital marching on his feet without any deformity (Wamba, 2012). He explained with gesticulation how he killed the person who bewitched him and then was healed of his infirmity.” These testimonies buttressed the significance of collaboration, where IM is limited, CM comes in to complement for the wellbeing of the patients.
Indigenous medicine commanded a lot of respect in the communities where it was practiced. It was culturally accepted by the people as part of them. Effective collaboration made it easy for medical doctors to understand the population through traditional healers since they lived with the people in the communities and understood their medical history. Collaboration influenced exchanges that improved on the hygienic condition of tradi-practitioners and also educated them to refer cases they could not handle to the hospital earlier, instead of waiting until critical moments before the patient was referred to the hospital. In Senegal for example, an association of traditional doctors known as, “Promotion of Traditional medicine” (PROMOTRA) run a center known as “Experimental Center for Traditional Medicine” (CEMETRA). This center worked together with biomedical doctors who conduct laboratory tests and collected vital signs of the patient like weight and height and the results were handed to tradi-practitioners for treatment. After the treatment, the patient was again diagnosed to determine the effectiveness of the treatment and also examined if there were any side effects from the treatment (Kofi et al, 1999).
This study explores indigenous and conventional medicine as sources of healing in Nso Fondom. It revealed that despite the differences between IM and CM, there are aimed at the treatment of illnesses using different methods base on their belief systems and cultural affiliations. Despite enormous efforts by Missionaries and colonial authority to annihilate indigenous medicine, it survived because it was effective, affordable, and available and treated some illnesses better than CM. It treated both spiritual and physical illnesses and was part of the people’s culture. The study also revealed that the introduction of conventional medicine was received with mixed feelings and it brought mixed blessings. It facilitated the eradication of some illnesses like sleeping sickness and prevented other sicknesses via vaccination. The study also revealed that tension that existed between IM and CM was due to differences in belief systems and the superiority complex that accompanied CM. In 1979, when the WHO recognized IM at the Alma Ata Conference in Russia, because of the pivotal role played by IM in meeting the health care needs of the people, it curved the tension. Finally, in spite of the differences and tension that existed between the health care systems, collaboration was seen to be very significant as it led to exchange of skills/knowledge. Collaboration also led to external referrals, reduce death rate and improved the quality of life.
Primary source
Emmanuel, Shamase. Age 45. Traditional healer. Jakiri, 15th December 2021.
Leonard, Sunjo. Age 67. Medical Doctor. Foncha Street, Bamenda 13th July 2016.
Charles, Karngong. Age 69. Traditional Healer, Wat. 06th August 2020
Solange, Tabim Djai, Age 41, Nurse, Noni, 13th June 2022
Yarayen Mohamadou. Age 45, Traditional Healer. Nseh, 15th June, 2016
Stephen Bong. Age 62, Traditional healer, Menfu, 23th August 2016.
Anthony, Konghadzem. Age 80, Traditional Healer, 30th August 2016.
Emmanuel Wirsiy. Age 78, Traditional Healer, Memfu, 23th of August, 2016
Joseph Kesiki, Age 64, Traditional Healer, Nseh, 28th August, 2016
Idrissu Wiraka, Age 80, Traditional Healer, Menyar, 14th September 2016
Adamu Wirngo, Age 60, Traditional Healer, Tatum, 15th June 2021
National Archive Buea, File No Ab (1990)75, Thaumaturgy in Contemporary Traditional Religion: The Case of Nso, Journal of Religion in Africa, 1993, p238
Secondary sources
Aderajew, Atem, “African Systems of Thought and Scientific Knowledge” Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Addis Ababa, (2016) 35.
Ali Arazeem Abdullahi, “Trends and Challenges of Traditional Medicine in Africa”, African Journal of Complementary and Alternative Medicines, Vol 8, No 5, (2011) 115-123.
Banfogha, Wirba Joan, Interaction between Traditional and Western Medicines in Nso, 1820-2000, Masters Theses in History, University of Bamenda, (2011)
Bruno J Strasser, Biomedicine: Meaning, Assumptions, and possible future, Geneva, 2014.
Cameroon Tribune, No 6567/3856, April (2000).
Yusuf M Celik, “Traditional Medicines and Modern Medicine with Information Technology”, International Journal of Basic and Clinical Studies, Vol 4, No 4, (2015)1-10.
Daniel N Lantum, “Cameroon Cultural Identity Expressed through Science and Technology”, Yaounde (1985), n.p, 4
Daniel N Lantum, Traditional medicine men of Cameroon, the case of Bui Division, SOPECAM, Yaounde, (1986).
David J Simbo, “ Ethnobotanical Survey of Medicinal Plants in Babungo”, Northwest Region, Cameroon, Simbo Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, vol 8, No 6, (2010) 1-7.
E.M. Chilver and P.M Kaberry, Traditional Bamenda, The Pre-Historical History and Ethnography of the Bamenda Grassfields, Government printers Buea, (1976).
Emmanuel K Sarkey et al, Intellectual Property Approaches to the Protection of Traditional Knowledge in Africa, World Health Organization Regional Office for Africa, Brazzaville 2010.
Iddrisu M. T, “Healing and Medicine in Traditional African Societies, A Reflection of the World View”, International Journal of Development, Vol 3, No 2, 2017, pp 51-59.
Joan Wirba Banfogha, Interaction between Traditional and Western Medicine in Nso 1820-2000, Masters Dissertation, University of Yaounde 1, 2011.
Kent Maynard, “European Preoccupations and Indigenous Culture in Cameroon, British Rule and the Transformation of Kedjom Medicine”, Canadian Journal of African Studies, vol 36, No1, 2002 pp79-117.
Kofi et al, “Collaboration between Traditional and Conventional Health Practitioners, some Country Experiences”, p 43.
Lusamba, “The African Health Monitor, African Traditional Medicine Day” (2010)p8.
M E Shuka, The Basel Mission Activities in Nso, Perception, Strategies and Native Reactions, DIPES II History, University of Yaounde1, 2000, p 49.
M.G Mokgobi, “Health Care Practitioners Opinion about Traditional Healing”, African Journal of Physical Education, Vol20, No2, 2015, pp14-23.
Malcolm Stuart, The Encyclopedia of Herbs and Herbalism, Orbis Publishing Limited, London, 1979.
Mark Bolak Funteh, ‘Local Reactions to British introduction of Scientific Medicine in Southern Cameroons’, Palgo Journal of Medicine and Medical science, vol5, issue 4, 2018, pp 48-59.
Marlise Richter, Traditional Medicines and Traditional Healers in South Africa, Discussion Paper prepared for the Treatment Action Campaign and AIDS Law Project, 2003.
Maurice Tiibam Kube “Will the Deadly March of AIDS be Halted by Traditional Medicine”? Biodiagnostic and Therapy Magazine, 2002
Njodzeka Elvis, Ethnomedicines in the Nso Fondom, Constraints and Challenges, 1922-2010, Masters Theses in History, University of Buea,2018
Onah Gregory et al, “The Concept of Health and Wholeness in Traditional African Religion and Social Medicine”, Arts and Social Science Journal, Vol 9 No 4, 2018, pp 1-5.
Ossy M J Kasilo, An overview of Traditional Medicines Situation in the African Region, World Health Organization Regional Office for Africa, Brazzaville,2010.
Patrict A Twumasi, “Medicinal System in Ghana, A Study of Medicinal Sociology”, Accra, Ghana Publishing
Patrick A Twumasi, “Medicinal System in Ghana, A Study of Medicinal Sociology”, Accra, Ghana Publishing Corporation, 1975, pp 10-11.
Paul Lusamba Dikassa, “The African Health Monitor, African Traditional medicine Day”, WHO Regional office for Africa, Brazzaville, 2010.
Peter M Mumo, “Holistic Healing: An Analytical Review of Medicine-men in African Societies, Thought and Practice”, Journal of the Philosophical Association of Kenya, Vol 4, No1, 2012, pp 111-122.
Roy Porter, A History of Healing, Ancient Tradition to Modern Practice, The Ivy Press Limited, Thailand, 1997, p 68.
Simbo David, “An Ethnobotanical Survey of Medicinal Plants in Babungo, Northwest Region, Cameroon” Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicines, vol 6, No 8, 2010.
Tata Mbuy, Basic Principles of Bioethics for Medical Students in Africa, ICENC, Yaounde, 2021.
The Post Newspaper, No 02200, 2021. Tssfcameroonhealth.de, access on the 4th of April, 2023.
Verkigika Fanso, “Scientific and Indigenous Medicine in the Bamenda Grassfields, Cameroon, Contact, Conflict and Collaboration”, Workshop on Public Understanding of Science in Africa, The British Institute in East Africa, Nairobi Kenya, 22-24th September 2010.
Yusuf M Celik, “Traditional Medicines and Modern Medicine with Information Technology”, International Journal of Basic and Clinical Studies, Vol 4, No 4, 2-15,pp1-10
Wamba Andre et al, “Constructing a Collaborative Process between Traditional, Religious, and Biomedical Health Practitioners in Cameroon”, Nordic Journal of African Studies, vol 21, No 2, 2012 pp 49-74
W.H.O, “Traditional and Modern Medicines, Harmonizing the two Approaches”, A Report of Consultative Meeting on Traditional and Modern Medicines, Beijing China, 22-26 November 1999
Njodzeka, E; Bulowah, BY; Ngwoh, PZ (2024). Indigenous medicine versus Biomedicines as Sources of Healing in the Nso Fondom (Cameroon). Greener Journal of Social Sciences, 14(1): 92-103.
Download [345.06 KB]
Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *
Comment *
Name *
Email *
Website
Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.
Post Comment
